Post By: Hanan MannanContact Number: Pak (+92)-321-59-95-634-------------------------------------------------------This chapter will explain dynamic memory management in C. The C programming language provides several functions for memory allocation and management. These functions can be found in the header file.S.N.Function and Description1void *calloc(int num, int size);This function allocates...
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Tuesday, 13 May 2014
C - Memory Management and with C - Command Line Arguments
Post By: Hanan Mannan
Contact Number: Pak (+92)-321-59-95-634
-------------------------------------------------------
C - Command Line Arguments
Contact Number: Pak (+92)-321-59-95-634
-------------------------------------------------------
This chapter will explain dynamic memory management in C. The C programming language provides several functions for memory allocation and management. These functions can be found in the
| S.N. | Function and Description |
|---|---|
| 1 | void *calloc(int num, int size); This function allocates an array of num elements each of which size in bytes will be size. |
| 2 | void free(void *address); This function release a block of memory block specified by address. |
| 3 | void *malloc(int num); This function allocates an array of num bytes and leave them initialized. |
| 4 | void *realloc(void *address, int newsize); This function re-allocates memory extending it upto newsize. |
Allocating Memory Dynamically
While doing programming, if you are aware about the size of an array, then it is easy and you can define it as an array. For example to store a name of any person, it can go max 100 characters so you can define something as follows:
char name[100];
But now let us consider a situation where you have no idea about the length of the text you need to store, for example you want to store a detailed description about a topic. Here we need to define a pointer to character without defining how much memory is required and later based on requirement we can allocate memory as shown in the below example:
#include
#include
#include
int main()
{
char name[100];
char *description;
strcpy(name, "Zara Ali");
/* allocate memory dynamically */
description = malloc( 200 * sizeof(char) );
if( description == NULL )
{
fprintf(stderr, "Error - unable to allocate required memory\n");
}
else
{
strcpy( description, "Zara ali a DPS student in class 10th");
}
printf("Name = %s\n", name );
printf("Description: %s\n", description );
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result.
Name = Zara Ali
Description: Zara ali a DPS student in class 10th
Same program can be written using calloc() only thing you need to replace malloc with calloc as follows:
calloc(200, sizeof(char));
So you have complete control and you can pass any size value while allocating memory unlike arrays where once you defined the size can not be changed.
Resizing and Releasing Memory
When your program comes out, operating system automatically release all the memory allocated by your program but as a good practice when you are not in need of memory anymore then you should release that memory by calling the function free().
Alternatively, you can increase or decrease the size of an allocated memory block by calling the functionrealloc(). Let us check the above program once again and make use of realloc() and free() functions:
#include
#include
#include
int main()
{
char name[100];
char *description;
strcpy(name, "Zara Ali");
/* allocate memory dynamically */
description = malloc( 30 * sizeof(char) );
if( description == NULL )
{
fprintf(stderr, "Error - unable to allocate required memory\n");
}
else
{
strcpy( description, "Zara ali a DPS student.");
}
/* suppose you want to store bigger description */
description = realloc( description, 100 * sizeof(char) );
if( description == NULL )
{
fprintf(stderr, "Error - unable to allocate required memory\n");
}
else
{
strcat( description, "She is in class 10th");
}
printf("Name = %s\n", name );
printf("Description: %s\n", description );
/* release memory using free() function */
free(description);
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result.
Name = Zara Ali
Description: Zara ali a DPS student.She is in class 10th
You can try above example without re-allocating extra memory and strcat() function will give an error due to lack of available memory in description.
C - Command Line Arguments
It is possible to pass some values from the command line to your C programs when they are executed. These values are called command line arguments and many times they are important for your program specially when you want to control your program from outside instead of hard coding those values inside the code.The command line arguments are handled using main() function arguments where argc refers to the number of arguments passed, and argv[] is a pointer array which points to each argument passed to the program. Following is a simple example which checks if there is any argument supplied from the command line and take action accordingly:#include
int main( int argc, char *argv[] )
{
if( argc == 2 )
{
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
}
else if( argc > 2 )
{
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");
}
else
{
printf("One argument expected.\n");
}
}
When the above code is compiled and executed with a single argument, it produces the following result.$./a.out testing
The argument supplied is testing
When the above code is compiled and executed with a two arguments, it produces the following result.$./a.out testing1 testing2
Too many arguments supplied.
When the above code is compiled and executed without passing any argument, it produces the following result.$./a.out
One argument expected
It should be noted that argv[0] holds the name of the program itself and argv[1] is a pointer to the first command line argument supplied, and *argv[n] is the last argument. If no arguments are supplied, argc will be one, otherwise and if you pass one argument then argc is set at 2.You pass all the command line arguments separated by a space, but if argument itself has a space then you can pass such arguments by putting them inside double quotes "" or single quotes ''. Let us re-write above example once again where we will print program name and we also pass a command line argument by putting inside double quotes:#include
int main( int argc, char *argv[] )
{
printf("Program name %s\n", argv[0]);
if( argc == 2 )
{
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
}
else if( argc > 2 )
{
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");
}
else
{
printf("One argument expected.\n");
}
}
When the above code is compiled and executed with a single argument separated by space but inside double quotes, it produces the following result.$./a.out "testing1 testing2"
Progranm name ./a.out
The argument supplied is testing1 testing2
int main( int argc, char *argv[] )
{
if( argc == 2 )
{
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
}
else if( argc > 2 )
{
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");
}
else
{
printf("One argument expected.\n");
}
}
The argument supplied is testing
Too many arguments supplied.
One argument expected
int main( int argc, char *argv[] )
{
printf("Program name %s\n", argv[0]);
if( argc == 2 )
{
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
}
else if( argc > 2 )
{
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");
}
else
{
printf("One argument expected.\n");
}
}
Progranm name ./a.out
The argument supplied is testing1 testing2
C - Recursion and With C - Variable Arguments
Post by: Hanan Mannan
Contact Number: Pak (+92)-321-59-95-634
-------------------------------------------------------
C - Recursion
C - Variable Arguments
Contact Number: Pak (+92)-321-59-95-634
-------------------------------------------------------
C - Recursion
Recursion is the process of repeating items in a self-similar way. Same applies in programming languages as well where if a programming allows you to call a function inside the same function that is called recursive call of the function as follows.void recursion()
{
recursion(); /* function calls itself */
}
int main()
{
recursion();
}
The C programming language supports recursion, i.e., a function to call itself. But while using recursion, programmers need to be careful to define an exit condition from the function, otherwise it will go in infinite loop.Recursive function are very useful to solve many mathematical problems like to calculate factorial of a number, generating Fibonacci series, etc.
{
recursion(); /* function calls itself */
}
int main()
{
recursion();
}
Number Factorial
Following is an example, which calculates factorial for a given number using a recursive function:#include
int factorial(unsigned int i)
{
if(i <= 1)
{
return 1;
}
return i * factorial(i - 1);
}
int main()
{
int i = 15;
printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", i, factorial(i));
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:Factorial of 15 is 2004310016
int factorial(unsigned int i)
{
if(i <= 1)
{
return 1;
}
return i * factorial(i - 1);
}
int main()
{
int i = 15;
printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", i, factorial(i));
return 0;
}
Fibonacci Series
Following is another example, which generates Fibonacci series for a given number using a recursive function:#include
int fibonaci(int i)
{
if(i == 0)
{
return 0;
}
if(i == 1)
{
return 1;
}
return fibonaci(i-1) + fibonaci(i-2);
}
int main()
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
{
printf("%d\t%n", fibonaci(i));
}
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34
int fibonaci(int i)
{
if(i == 0)
{
return 0;
}
if(i == 1)
{
return 1;
}
return fibonaci(i-1) + fibonaci(i-2);
}
int main()
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
{
printf("%d\t%n", fibonaci(i));
}
return 0;
}
C - Variable Arguments
Sometimes, you may come across a situation, when you want to have a function, which can take variable number of arguments, i.e., parameters, instead of predefined number of parameters. The C programming language provides a solution for this situation and you are allowed to define a function which can accept variable number of parameters based on your requirement. The following example shows the definition of such a function.int func(int, ... )
{
.
.
.
}
int main()
{
func(1, 2, 3);
func(1, 2, 3, 4);
}
It should be noted that function func() has last argument as ellipses i.e. three dotes (...) and the one just before the ellipses is always an int which will represent total number variable arguments passed. To use such functionality you need to make use of stdarg.h header file which provides functions and macros to implement the functionality of variable arguments and follow the following steps:- Define a function with last parameter as ellipses and the one just before the ellipses is always an int which will represent number of arguments.
- Create a va_list type variable in the function definition. This type is defined in stdarg.h header file.
- Use int parameter and va_start macro to initialize the va_list variable to an argument list. The macro va_start is defined in stdarg.h header file.
- Use va_arg macro and va_list variable to access each item in argument list.
- Use a macro va_end to clean up the memory assigned to va_list variable.
Now let us follow the above steps and write down a simple function which can take variable number of parameters and returns their average:#include
#include
double average(int num,...)
{
va_list valist;
double sum = 0.0;
int i;
/* initialize valist for num number of arguments */
va_start(valist, num);
/* access all the arguments assigned to valist */
for (i = 0; i < num; i++)
{
sum += va_arg(valist, int);
}
/* clean memory reserved for valist */
va_end(valist);
return sum/num;
}
int main()
{
printf("Average of 2, 3, 4, 5 = %f\n", average(4, 2,3,4,5));
printf("Average of 5, 10, 15 = %f\n", average(3, 5,10,15));
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result. It should be noted that the function average() has been called twice and each time first argument represents the total number of variable arguments being passed. Only ellipses will be used to pass variable number of arguments.Average of 2, 3, 4, 5 = 3.500000
Average of 5, 10, 15 = 10.000000
{
.
.
.
}
int main()
{
func(1, 2, 3);
func(1, 2, 3, 4);
}
Define a function with last parameter as ellipses and the one just before the ellipses is always an int which will represent number of arguments.
Create a va_list type variable in the function definition. This type is defined in stdarg.h header file.
Use int parameter and va_start macro to initialize the va_list variable to an argument list. The macro va_start is defined in stdarg.h header file.
Use va_arg macro and va_list variable to access each item in argument list.
Use a macro va_end to clean up the memory assigned to va_list variable.
#include
double average(int num,...)
{
va_list valist;
double sum = 0.0;
int i;
/* initialize valist for num number of arguments */
va_start(valist, num);
/* access all the arguments assigned to valist */
for (i = 0; i < num; i++)
{
sum += va_arg(valist, int);
}
/* clean memory reserved for valist */
va_end(valist);
return sum/num;
}
int main()
{
printf("Average of 2, 3, 4, 5 = %f\n", average(4, 2,3,4,5));
printf("Average of 5, 10, 15 = %f\n", average(3, 5,10,15));
}
Average of 5, 10, 15 = 10.000000
C - Error Handling
Post By: Hanan Mannan
Contact Number: Pak (+92)-321-59-95-634
-------------------------------------------------------
C - Error Handling
Contact Number: Pak (+92)-321-59-95-634
-------------------------------------------------------
C - Error Handling
As such C programming does not provide direct support for error handling but being a system programming language, it provides you access at lower level in the form of return values. Most of the C or even Unix function calls return -1 or NULL in case of any error and sets an error code errno is set which is global variable and indicates an error occurred during any function call. You can find various error codes defined in header file. So a C programmer can check the returned values and can take appropriate action depending on the return value. As a good practice, developer should set errno to 0 at the time of initialization of the program. A value of 0 indicates that there is no error in the program.
The errno, perror() and strerror()
The C programming language provides perror() and strerror() functions which can be used to display the text message associated with errno.- The perror() function displays the string you pass to it, followed by a colon, a space, and then the textual representation of the current errno value.
- The strerror() function, which returns a pointer to the textual representation of the current errno value.
Let's try to simulate an error condition and try to open a file which does not exist. Here I'm using both the functions to show the usage, but you can use one or more ways of printing your errors. Second important point to note is that you should use stderr file stream to output all the errors.#include
#include
#include
extern int errno ;
int main ()
{
FILE * pf;
int errnum;
pf = fopen ("unexist.txt", "rb");
if (pf == NULL)
{
errnum = errno;
fprintf(stderr, "Value of errno: %d\n", errno);
perror("Error printed by perror");
fprintf(stderr, "Error opening file: %s\n", strerror( errnum ));
}
else
{
fclose (pf);
}
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:Value of errno: 2
Error printed by perror: No such file or directory
Error opening file: No such file or directory
The perror() function displays the string you pass to it, followed by a colon, a space, and then the textual representation of the current errno value.
The strerror() function, which returns a pointer to the textual representation of the current errno value.
#include
#include
extern int errno ;
int main ()
{
FILE * pf;
int errnum;
pf = fopen ("unexist.txt", "rb");
if (pf == NULL)
{
errnum = errno;
fprintf(stderr, "Value of errno: %d\n", errno);
perror("Error printed by perror");
fprintf(stderr, "Error opening file: %s\n", strerror( errnum ));
}
else
{
fclose (pf);
}
return 0;
}
Error printed by perror: No such file or directory
Error opening file: No such file or directory
Divide by zero errors
It is a common problem that at the time of dividing any number, programmers do not check if a divisor is zero and finally it creates a runtime error.The code below fixes this by checking if the divisor is zero before dividing:#include
#include
main()
{
int dividend = 20;
int divisor = 0;
int quotient;
if( divisor == 0){
fprintf(stderr, "Division by zero! Exiting...\n");
exit(-1);
}
quotient = dividend / divisor;
fprintf(stderr, "Value of quotient : %d\n", quotient );
exit(0);
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:Division by zero! Exiting...
#include
main()
{
int dividend = 20;
int divisor = 0;
int quotient;
if( divisor == 0){
fprintf(stderr, "Division by zero! Exiting...\n");
exit(-1);
}
quotient = dividend / divisor;
fprintf(stderr, "Value of quotient : %d\n", quotient );
exit(0);
}
Program Exit Status
It is a common practice to exit with a value of EXIT_SUCCESS in case of programming is coming out after a successful operation. Here, EXIT_SUCCESS is a macro and it is defined as 0.If you have an error condition in your program and you are coming out then you should exit with a status EXIT_FAILURE which is defined as -1. So let's write above program as follows:#include
#include
main()
{
int dividend = 20;
int divisor = 5;
int quotient;
if( divisor == 0){
fprintf(stderr, "Division by zero! Exiting...\n");
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}
quotient = dividend / divisor;
fprintf(stderr, "Value of quotient : %d\n", quotient );
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:Value of quotient : 4
#include
main()
{
int dividend = 20;
int divisor = 5;
int quotient;
if( divisor == 0){
fprintf(stderr, "Division by zero! Exiting...\n");
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}
quotient = dividend / divisor;
fprintf(stderr, "Value of quotient : %d\n", quotient );
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
}
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